tl 





Class / / 2 L- 

Book 1. 



y^ 



Copyright N°. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



NOTES FOR 

FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



A COURSE FOR HIGH SCHOOLS 

BY 

JAMES DRAKE LITTLEFIELD 

INSTRUCTOR IN FORGING : TECHNICAL 
HIGH SCHOOL :: CLEVELAND, OHIO 



The Haytol Series of Textbooks for Industrial Education 
Edited by Frank E. Mathewson 



> •> > 



THE TAYLOR-HOLDEN COMPANY 
Springfield, Massachusetts ■ 1910 



\« 



< 1 V 



Copyright 1910 

BY 

The Taylor-Holden Company 
Springfield, Mass. 

First Edition 



A. 



The F. A. Bassette Co., Printers, Springfield, Mass. 



N* 



©CLA273672 



PREFACE 

The Notes on Forge Shop Practice have been espe- 
cially arranged for the use of the classes in this subject at 
the Cleveland Technical High School. It is given publica- 
tion to meet the demand or needs of such classes in all 
Manual Training or Technical High Schools for a series 
of exercises including the necessary explanatory notes 
and working drawings. The author acknowledges indebt- 
edness to Mr. J. R. Lambirth of the Massachusetts Institute 
of Technology for the permission to use some of his original 
drawings in this book. The book is not to be considered 
a theoretical treatise on the manipulation of iron and 
steel, for as its title indicates, it is simply an outline course 
in the subject for High School pupils. 

James Drake Littlefield 
Cleveland, August, 1910 



CONTENTS 

Page 

1 Notes on Iron. Cast, Malleable and Wrought. . 7 

2 Puddling 8 

3 The Forge 8 

4 Building and Care of the Fire 10 

5 The Anvil 10 

6 The Hand Hammer 11 

7 Tools 11 

8 Different Heats for Working Iron 12 

9 Exercise I " Drawing and Forming Iron" . 14 

10 Exercise II " Ring" 16 

11 Exercise III "SHook" 16 

12 Exercise IV " Meat Hook" 18 

13 Exercise V " Eye Bolt" 20 

14 Exercise VI-VII " Staples" 22 

15 Exercise VIII "Gate Hook" 22 

16 Art of Welding 26 

17 Fire for Welding 27 

1 8 Oxidation of Iron 27 

19 Kinds of Welds 27 

20 Exercise IX " Fagot Welding" 28 

21 The Scarf or Lap Weld 28 

22 The Split Weld 30 

23 The Butt Weld 30 

24 The Jump Weld 31 

25 The Cleft or Fork Weld 31 

26 Electric Welding 32 

27 Exercise X " Flat Ring or Washer" 32 

28 Exercise XI " Links of Chain " 34 

29 Exercise XII " Ring" 36 

30 Exercise XIII " Chain Hook" 37 



31 Exercise XIV 

32 Exercise XV 

33 Exercise XVI 

34 Exercise XVII 

35 Exercise XVIII 

36 Steel and Its Manufacture 
3 7 Open Hearth Steel 

38 Bessemer Steel 

39 Crucible Steel 

40 Tempering 

41 Tool Tempering 

42 Spring Tempering 

43 Annealing 

44 High Speed Steel 

45 Case Hardening 

46 Exercise XIX 

47 Exercise XX 

48 Exercise XXI 

49 Exercise XXII 

50 Exercise XXIII 

51 Exercise XXIV 

52 Exercise XXV 

53 Exercise XXVI 

54 Exercise XXVII 



" Timber Hanger". . . . 
" Hexagonal Bolt" 

"Fork Wrench" 

" Machinist's Clamp " . 
" Blacksmith's Tongs" 



"Center Punch" 

"Blacksmith Punch" 

"Cold Chisel" 

"Cape Chisel" 

" Bent Round Nose Tool" 

"Thread Tool". 

"Bent Side Tool" 

"Cutting off Tool" 

" Riveting Hammer" 



40 
42 
44 
46 
48 
52 
53 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
57 
58 
59 
60 
60 
60 
62 
62 
63 
64 
66 
67 



Notes for 
Forge Shop Practice 



NOTES ON IRON 

Iron. Iron is the most important of the metallic 
elements, silvery white in color when pure, very tenacious, 
malleable and ductile. Iron was first produced in America 
in 1622 near the James River, Virginia. It is used in the 
industrial arts in four forms — cast-iron, malleable iron, 
wrought iron and steel, each form having its own marked 
physical properties, fitting it for a special purpose. 

Cast-iron. Cast-iron is an alloy. It is often called 
pig-iron because of the fact that it is molded in little bars 
or pigs as it runs from the furnace. The process of making 
this iron is that of smelting or melting the ore in a blast 
furnace in connection with various fluxes, particularly 
limestone. These furnaces are from fifty to sixty feet high 
and are called " blast" furnaces because the blast is forced 
into them. This species of iron is extremely brittle and 
melts at a relatively low temperature; is crystalline in 
construction and can only be used for such articles as may 
be made or cast in molds. It contains a large percentage of 
carbon and usually silicon, phosphorus and sulphur. The 
amount of carbon varies from 1.5% to 4.5%. 

Malleable Iron. Malleable iron is cast-iron which has 
been toughened during the process of baking in an oven 
for six or eight days. This decarbonizes the cast-iron. 

Wrought Iron. Wrought iron is the extreme of the 
series. It is an alloy of iron and comes the nearest to being 
pure, having an extremely small percentage of carbon, 
practically none. It is very malleable, fusing at a very 
high temperature; becomes pasty during a considerable 
range of heat; will keep in a malleable condition above a 
red heat, which is much below the fusing point and thus 
can be bent and formed into different shapes with the 
hammer. Iron work produced in this way is called Wrought 



8 FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



Iron. Wrought iron manipulated when hot is said to be 
forged. Two pieces brought to a fusing point may be 
united into one piece by hammering. Pieces so united are 
said to be welded (see page 26). It will not become hard 
and brittle like cast-iron as it is of a fibrous construction; 
it shows a high tensile strength at a fracture. This iron is 
divided into two classes — common or refined iron and Norway 
iron. Wrought iron has been largely displaced for most 
purposes by the increased production of steel. The iron 
used in making the exercises in this course should be Norway 
iron as better results are attained than by using common iron. 

Puddling. The general process of making wrought 
iron at the present day is known as "puddling." This 
process was invented about the year 1780 by Henry Cort 
and improved about fifty years later by Joseph Hall. The 
method employed is one of melting cast-iron in a chamber 
or on the hearth of a reverbatory furnace, the flame passing 
over the molten metal. The requisite time for this opera- 
tion is about thirty minutes. When the metal becomes 
melted, an oxidizing metal is added. All phosphorus, 
sulphur, carbon and other impurities may be eliminated 
by stirring. During the melting a slag forms and adjusts 
itself to the iron around each fiber, showing a fibrous rather 
than a crystalline structure. There are many varieties of 
furnaces of various capacities; the capacity of the most 
common size ordinarily being from joo lbs. to ijoo lbs. 

The Forge. The "forge" may be defined as an open 
fireplace for heating iron and steel. Where only one or two 
forges are required and the blast is furnished by hand, a 
brick forge is used having a hood attached to a chimney 
to catch smoke, and the air blast is furnished by a bellows. 
Of late, such forges are being replaced by iron forges and 
a small blower or fan attached to obtain the blast. Such 
a forge, illustrated in Figure 1, is made of cast-iron, the 
blast coming from a pressure blower and the smoke taken 
away by an exhaust blower. This method is known as the 
down-draft system and is used in shops where a number 
of fires are necessary. The advantage of this system is in 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



9 



the doing away with all overhead pipes which interfere 
with the lighting of the shop. 




Figure 1. Names of Parts of Forge. 



1. Hood 7. 

2. Lever to Operate Hood 8. 

3. Coal Tank 9. 

4. Firepot 10. 

5. Water Tank 11. 

6. Pan 12. 

13. Blast Gate 



Tuyeres 

Base 

Ash Dump 

Blast Pipe 

Smoke or Exhaust Pipe 

Blast Lever 



10 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



Forge Tools. Tools used about the forge for the fire 
are coal shovel, fire rake and dipper and they are designated 
as fire tools. 

Building and Care of the Fire. First remove all clinkers 
caused by foreign matter, such as dirt, slate, glass, etc. Put 
them in the coal hod beside the forge. Place the coke or 
partly burned coal at one side of the forge. Cover the 
tuyere with a small handful of shavings. After lighting, 
put on some of the coke {never use new or green coal to 
start the fire). Allow very little blast, care being taken 
not to use too much as that will extinguish the fire and be 
liable to blow the hot coals into your face. When the fire 
is well under way, bank around with wet, green coal, 
leaving the sides and back higher than the front. Save 
extra coke to fill in the center of the fire as it burns away. 
Do not continually poke the fire. Use only the rake for 
raking and only the shovel to clean out and put on green 
coal. When heating the work, lay it flat across the fire, 
being sure to have plenty of coke or live coals underneath ; 
also cover the work with coke. 



The Anvil. 




Figure 2 

1. Body (iron) 

2. Horn 

3. Base of Horn 

4. Face (steel) 



Names of Parts of Anvil. 

5. Heel 

6. Round edge 

7. Sharp edge 

8. Hole for Tools 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



11 



The Hand Hammer. The ball pene or pein hammer is 
the most practical for the work done in this course. 




Figure 3. Names of Parts of Hammer. 



1. Hammer Head 

2. Hammer Handle 

3. Face 



4. Pene or Pein 

5. Eye 

6. Toe 
Heel 



Blacksmith's Tongs. Tools used to hold work are called 
blacksmith's tongs (never call them pincers). The kinds 
and sizes are governed by the size and shape of the stock 
or work being used. 




L-K 



Figure 4. Names of Parts of Blacksmith's Tongs. 



1 . Lip or Jaw 

2. Rivet 



3. 
4. 



Eye 
Reins 



12 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



Cutting edge 




The Hardie. The Hardie is a tool 
used about the anvil for cutting hot 
and cold iron. (Figure 5.) 

The Center Punch. This tool is used 
for laying off measurements. (Figure 6.) 




% 



Head 



Figure 5, 



Figure 6. 



Different Heats for Working Iron. 

Black Heat 750° Fahr. 



Finishing heat. 



Dark Red or Cherry Heat 880° Fahr. For work nearly fin- 
ished. 

Yellow Heat 1150° Fahr. For stock requiring 

considerable working. 
If work reaches a yel- 
low heat when nearly 
finished, it leaves it all 
scales, that is, when 
iron reaches a certain 
heat, it blisters and 
scales off leaving a 
rough surface. 

Welding Heat, 1700° to 1900° Fahr. Beyond this heat the 

iron will melt or burn. 



Steel Welding Heat 1350° Fahr. 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



13 



Swage-blocks. A swage-block, sometimes called a 
former, is shown in Figure 7. Swage-blocks are usually 
made of cast iron, a convenient size being 21" square and 
4" thick. They are made in various sizes and shapes, round, 
square or rectangular in form, and are sometimes mounted 
upon a stand or frame. The different grooves, round, V 
shape and hexagonal, are used as swages ; the hexagonal 
groove being also used in forming the hexagonal head and 
nut for bolts. The holes in the swage-block are used for 
heading tools. These blocks are very convenient and also 
necessary in doing a variety of work as they save making 
a great many special tools. 





14 FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 

Exercise I — Plate I. Drawing and Forming Iron. 

(Note. This first exercise is to familiarize the student 
with heating the iron and using the hammer.) 
First — Square end of stock. Heat to a good red heat. 
Second — Lay off measurement from this end, using center 
punch and square. 

Third — Hold the end already squared in tongs. Heat all 
beyond center punch mark to a yellow heat and draw to 
^e" square. Finish at a cherry heat. Care must be taken 
to avoid getting portion not being worked upon the anvil. 
The under side of the shoulder is formed by the anvil, 
the top by the heel of the hammer on the sharp edge of 
the anvil. 

Fourth — Lay off second measurement. 
Fifth — Draw remainder octagonal in shape as before. 
Sixth — Lay off third measurement. 

Seventh — Measure or allow f" of the rs" octagon for the 
point. Cut off the extra stock on hardie. 
Eighth — Draw the point square first; then octagon, and 
then when the corners are taken off, it should be round. 
Care must be taken not to strike too heavy a blow T upon 
the extreme point when it is cold, as the iron will split. 

(Note. When drawing the point, hold the work on the 
outside of the anvil and hold it up so that the portion on the 
anvil will be on the same level with the part hit by the hammer. 
See Figure 8.) Figure 9 shows the improper position for 
pointing. 





Figure 8. Figure 9. 

Ninth — Examine work carefully to be sure that it is straight. 
Tenth — Blacken the work over a smoky fire while it is 
black hot and wipe with oily cotton waste. 




Plate T. 



16 FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



Exercise II — Plate II. Bending Iron "Ring." 

First — Square one end, using \" tongs. 

Second — Place squared end of work on the face of the 

anvil when squaring the second end. If driven back in 

the tongs, the first end will become damaged. 

Third — Heat and bend one-third of the stock over the 

horn of the anvil, bending at the extreme end of the work 

first. Heat second end to a cherry red heat and then bend 

it like the first. In bending, strike over the horn and not 

down on the top of the horn. 

Fourth — Bend the remaining portion, making a true circle. 

Leave the ends §" apart. 

Fifth — File the inside edge of each end in a vise in order 

to allow the ends to come together squarely. 

Sixth — Blacken finished work. 



Exercise III — Plate II. Bending Iron "S Hook" 

First — Square ends as in previous lesson. 

Second — Bend largest dimension first, bringing the end 
within f " of remaining stock. 

Third — Bend small dimension, using care to have all 
measurements and curves correct. 
Fourth — Blacken finished work. 



Rin g and 6 hook. 



Stock A 7 y> 3 



9^ 




3tocM. ay :•/ 




Plate II. 



18 FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 

Exercise IV — Plate III. Drawing and Bending 

"Meat Hook." 

First — Make square point \\" long, drawing the extreme 
point first and then work back in order to get the length. 
Second — Make round point 2" long. 

Third — Mark off 3" from the end of the point and bend to 
about 45°. To bend, heat at 3" mark, cool all but about 
f" each side of the mark and put the 2" point into the 
second hole in the heel of the anvil. Bend this from you. 
It must be done quickly or the iron will become too cold. 
Bend the point out slightly. 

Fourth — Mark off 2" from the inside of the bend and turn 
the point down. Shoulder in at A on the rounding or 
outside edge of the anvil, making it 5" long, \" wide, \" 
thick. Keep it straight on the top. Use link tongs when 
drawing out. 

Fifth— Mark off from the shoulder on the edge 2"x2"X-|" 
and cut off all over f" mark on hardie. To cut off on 
hardie, hold the point downward and bend at the mark 
in vise toward the straight side. Examine work carefully. 

Sixth — Blacken finished work. 



Meat Hook 



E 



«v3 



Stock QXffid 



4—2 




<—Z 



i 







<-z 



z *& 



-/ ~"^M P 




^u 



Note- Mode to 
hong oyer a piece 

of 2x4: 



Plate III. 



20 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



Exercise V — Plate IV. Drawing, Forming and 
Bending "Eye Bolt." 

First— Use the best end. Draw taper V X ¥ X \". Hold 
work on the outside edge of the anvil, drawing the end 
first, working backward for the required length. Use 
\" tongs only. 

Second — Draw the second end f " X \" to chisel point. Taper 
is formed entirely by anvil on the sharp edge. 
Third — Measure off 2§" for the shoulder, marking on the 
side. (Note. Always form the shoulder on the round edge 
when making a shoulder for a be ml, as the sharp edge will 
cut off the fibers and be liable to break when bending). Do 
not let the work slip from the anvil when forming the 
shoulder. 

Fourth — Heat the shoulder and bend over the horn at 
about qo°. Use pein of the hammer (see Figure 10). Drive 
back in tongs while resting on the horn in order to start 
the curve on the end of the bolt. Caution. In bending 
over the horn, be very carefid that the blows do not fall directly 
upon A as it will reduce the stock at B (see Figure 11). 




Morn 

Figure 10. 



Figure 11. 



Figure 12. 



Flatten the corner at a (see Figure 10) so that the end 
will come together squarely. Bend the other end over 
the horn to finish the eye (see Figure 12). 

Fifth — Measure the distance from the inside of the eye to 
where the point starts. Draw the point the required length. 
Sixth — Finish work as before. 



£" ye Bolt. 





A 


Stock 


-icy, 


1 




4 




J. 5 " 






^ 




U 






^ 



B 



TT 



v^ (Shoulder down 




Plate IV. 



22 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



Exercises VI and VII — Plate V. Drawing and 
Bending "Staples." 

First — Draw square point \\" long. In doing very particu- 
lar work, it is generally best to forge the point shorter 
than the desired length. 

Second — Bend the stock in the center over the horn, being 
careful not to flatten the stock at the curve. 

Third — Draw chisel points l-£"Xj". Draw ends J" square 
before flattening to \" . Bend as in previous exercise. 
When bending, hold the narrow edge up, taking care to 
have the ends even after bending. 

Fourth — Cut the ends off on the hardie after bending. 

Fifth — Blacken finished work. 



Exercise VIII — Plate VI. Bending and Twisting 

"Gate Hook." 

First — Lay off measurements noted in drawing. 

Second — Draw the largest end first for the eye, forming 
shoulders on three sides. Draw \" square first. (Note. 
When any round shape is worked on its side, upon the flat 
face of the anvil, there is a strong tendency to burst the bar 
through the center. Figure rj represents the end of a bar as 
it rests upon the face of the anvil. By hammering upon the 
upper side, the piece will take the form shown by the dotted 




Figure 13, 





Figure 14. 



Figure 15 



Staples 



i 



stock d g~-*4» ®> 



*? 




i 



E5 M stock 




Plate V. 



24 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



lines. If rolled even slightly, the sides which have been driven 
together will be forced or bulged apart, and if the rolling and 
pounding is continued, the bar will burst or crack through 
the center. A piece of work will look like Figure 14 if cut 
through the center and the end like Figure 75. Caution. Keep 
no stock upon the anvil that is not being worked upon. 
Use great care in forming shoulders. 

Third — Draw second end. Take corners off or form shoul- 
ders at center punch mark and round up as large as the 
stock. Taper the end in order to get the required length. 
Fourth — Bend the eye at a good red heat. Hold in vise 
¥ above center punch mark; bend toward straight side 
at 90° using wooden mallet. Re-heat and finish, bending 
over horn as in Exercise V, Page 20. 




Figure 16. 

Fifth — Bend the hook in the vise the same as for the eye 
but in the opposite direction. Bend a little over 90°. 
Place the point over the horn and bend outward slightly. 
Sixth — Twist the body. Mark off with center punch 1" 
from the eye and 1" from the hook. Heat to an even cherry 




Note-operations 
Drawing. 
Bending. 
IW/sting. 



Plate VI. 



26 FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



red heat and grip at center punch marks (a) (b) Figure 16. 
Make one complete turn and the twist is made. After the 
stock has been fastened into the vise for twisting, the opera- 
tion must progress rapidly. If too much time is taken, the 
vise will absorb the heat from the stock and the twist will be 
uneven. If the body is not straight, it must be straightened 
upon a block of hard wood, with a mallet, as hammering on 
the anvil will injure the sharp corners of the twist. 
Seventh — Blacken finished work. 

THE ART OF WELDING. 

Some metals, when heated, become gradually softer 
as the temperature increases, until a heat is attained at 
which the metal is in such a condition that if two separate 
pieces are brought into contact by slight pressure, they 
will adhere and form a single piece. Every metal is not 
affected in this manner. Cast-iron, for instance, does not 
become gradually softer as the heat is increased, but re- 
mains firm until a certain temperature is reached and then 
softens suddenly and goes to pieces. Any metal which 
softens gradually when heated, may be welded, while metals 
which act as cast-iron, cannot be welded. The condition 
at which two pieces of metal are ready to adhere, is known 
as the welding heat. The two pieces of metal properly 
shaped are brought to this welding heat, placed together 
and thoroughly hammered, or forced together by pressure 
in such a way as to bring the two pieces into contact at 
all parts of the weld. The weight of the blow must be 
governed by the size of the bar, as the blow must be suffi- 
cient to affect the metal from the surface to the center. With 
this precaution a good weld may be produced. It is 
necessary to make some of the most difficult welds at one 
heat, as it is impossible to re-heat. In all welding, the 
greatest care must be observed to heat the piece properly. 
A piece of wrought iron, when brought to a welding heat, 
is almost white, and little explosive sparks appear upon 
the surface. These little sparks are small particles of iron 
which become separated from the bar and burn. 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 27 

Fire for Welding. It is very essential to have and 
maintain a good fire during the process of welding. Good 
coal and materials are among the essentials. The good 
fire is indispensable in order to attain the best results 
in welding. Tuyere iron must be well covered with coke 
and the fire must be absolutely free from all clinkers and 
well banked with green coal, burning up quickly to allow 
all gas to escape. Keep plenty of coke on top of the iron. 
Do not continually poke the fire. 

Oxidation of Iron. If a piece of iron is heated in 
contact with air, it will absorb oxygen from the air and 
form a scale upon the surface which is known as oxide of 
iron. The hotter the iron, the more rapidly this scale will 
form. The scale does not adhere firmly to the iron and 
cannot be welded. Two methods are used to guard against 
oxidation. In the first it is accomplished by having a 
thick bed of fire for the air to pass through before coming 
in contact with the iron and by maintaining a moderate 
blast. The second method is by coating the surface of 
the iron with a substance called flux, which lowers the melt- 
ing point of the scale and makes welding easier. This flux 
is formed by a fusible mixture which offers protection to 
the iron. The most common flux for iron is clean, sharp 
sand and borax; the latter is used for fine work and steel. 
To weld steel is quite a different proposition, for the welding 
temperature of steel is, on account of its greater fusibility, 
considerably less than that of iron. There are so many 
different kinds of steel that the same rule will not apply 
to all of them. Cast tool steel is the most difficult to weld. 

Kinds of Welds. Classification of welds is important 
and should be made with reference to the use of the fin- 
ished article. Following are some of the various kinds 
of welds : 

The Fagot Weld The Butt Weld 

The Scarf or Lap Weld The Jump Weld 
The Split Weld The Cleft or Fork Weld 



28 FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



The Fagot Weld. The Fagot Weld is made by plac- 
ing two or more pieces of iron on top of each other and 
welding them in a lump or slab. 




Figure 17. 

Exercise IX. "Fagot Welding." 
First — Take one piece of iron f" xf" or any convenient 
size 20" long and one piece 4"xf"X-§". 
Second — Place the long piece in the left hand side of the fire 
and the short piece in the right hand side of the fire, using 
a pair of tongs for holding the latter. Bring to a welding 
heat. Place the short piece on the anvil, turning it over 
when removing from the fire; the long piece is placed on 
top and then with a few quick blows, the ends are welded 
together. (Figure 17 illustrates this exercise.) 
Third — After the first piece is thoroughly welded, a second 
or third piece may be added in like manner. The object 
of this exercise is to have the student familiarize himself 
with the welding heat and become more or less skilful in 
handling a weld. 

The Scarf or Lap Weld. This weld is the one usually 
adopted by smiths and is the best when it is practi- 
cable. For most welding, the ends of the pieces must be 
so shaped that when welded together, they will form a 
smooth joint. This shaping of the ends is called "scarfing" 
and the shaped end is called a "scarf." The scarfs should 
be so shaped that when placed together, they will touch 
in the center leaving the sides open. In this way the scale 
is forced out between the pieces. If the pieces should join 
on the sides and leave the center hollow, the scale would 
be imprisoned, making a bad weld. Prior to making a 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 29 

scarf weld, the metal should be reinforced or upset, as far 
back as it is to be exposed to the intense heat. This upset 
allows for wasting away. In case of failure to make a 
perfect weld at the first heat, then a second heat should 
be taken. No sign of the scarf should be seen on a perfect 
weld. For ordinary lap weld the length of the scarf may 



) Righ 



t 




Figure 18. Forming Scarf. 

be made one and one -half times the thickness of the bar. 
If the scarfs are long, the laps must be long. In welding 
a round bar, the scarf is made the same as the lap weld 
except that the scarf should be drawn to a sharp point 
instead of to the chisel edge. This is done in order that 
the corners may not project beyond the edge of the bar 
when welding, thus causing considerable trouble. Place 
the pieces in the fire with the scarf down, as the under side 
of the iron is always the hottest. Do not heat the iron too 
quickly as it will come to a welding heat on the outside and 
yet not be thoroughly heated, so that when exposed to 
the air, it will cool too rapidly. When each piece has 
attained a clean, white heat, remove them, giving each a 
jar upon the anvil while the scarf is down, thus dislodging 
any dirt which may have adhered. Turn the one in the 



r~mz 





L> 



Figure 19. Forming Scarf on Round and Flat Stock. 



30 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



right hand over and place the other on top of it, bringing 
them together as quickly as possible. In putting the two 
pieces together, the point of one scarf should just meet 
the heel of the other. Hammer rapidly, in order that they 
may become united before the heat gets below the welding 
point. The cold anvil very quickly reduces the heat. 

The Split Weld. This weld is used in welding thin 
stock and springs and tool steel. Pieces to be welded are 
split down the center about a half inch. One half is bent 
up and the other is bent down. They are driven together 
and the split parts are closed down upon each other. The 
joint is then heated and welded together. (Figure 20.) 




Figure 20. 

The Butt Weld. This weld is made by welding pieces 
together end to end. The ends are rounded slightly 
to allow the scale to be forced out. They are then heated 
to a welding heat and driven together and then worked down. 
The Butt Weld is not safe or strong like the Lap Weld. 
Long pieces may be welded in this way on the forge, the 
two pieces being placed in the fire from opposite sides of 
the forge and driven together when at a welding heat. 
(Figure 21.) 




Figure 21. 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



31 



The Jump Weld. This weld is another form of Butt 
Weld. It is made by upsetting the end of the piece which 
is to be jumped on the other to make a flange on the edge. 
After the weld is made, the flange may be worked down 
with a hammer. Jump welds should be avoided as much 
as possible as they are very liable to be weak. (Figure 22A.) 



C^<%& 



■^r 







V 

M 



Figure 22A. 



Figure 22B. 



The Cleft or Fork Weld. A weld of this sort is 
used for heavy stock. One piece is split in the shape of a 
Y and the other is tapered to a blunt point. This weld is 
used in joining iron to steel, being closed together before 
heated for welding. Separate heats cannot be taken in 
welding tool steel. (Figure 22B.) Minor welds are "Angle 11 
and "7" welds, the "angle" weld for flat stock and the 
"T" weld for flat or round stock. 



32 FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 

Electric Welding. Welding by electricity is accomplished 
by placing the pieces in close contact at the welding 
point causing a current of electricity to pass through 
the ends. These ends form the point of greatest resistance 
at which is generated a high degree of heat. At the same 
time, pressure is applied to force the two pieces together, 
and as the process continues, the softening ends are pressed 
closer and closer until a perfect weld is secured. In the 
ordinary method of forge welding, the heat is applied from 
the outside and gradually reaches the interior. Hence, 
the outside is welded before the inside, and there is no true 
method of ascertaining whether the interior has been 
welded or not. Then too, the heat travels along the piece, 
often injuring the metal adjacent to the weld. On the other 
hand, in electric welding, the heat is developed first in the 
interior and works outward, so that the inside is perfectly 
welded before the outside, and when the exterior has been 
united, there is no question regarding the inside. Another 
point of advantage in- using this process is, that the entire 
operation takes place directly under the eyes of the welder, 
and with experience he is able to accurately gauge and 
regulate the heat applied. By being able to see just what 
is taking place, he can also detect and prevent flaws in 
the weld. 

Exercise X — Plate VII. 

Upsetting — Scarfing — Welding — Smoothing with 
Flatter. "Flat Ring or Washer." 

First — Upset each end 2\" back from the end, shortening 
each end \" for extra stock for welding, keeping stock 
original width. Caution. When striking on the edge to 
narrow the work, hold it lengthwise of the anvil to prevent 
any danger from its flying out of the tongs. 

Second — Shorten or bevel each end §". Hold the work over 
the horn when driving back or upsetting. If, when working 
the bevel, the narrowing is done, on the long edge, it will 
keep both sides the same thickness. 



Flat Rin g orlA/osher 



/" / '' 

StOCk I3ZX/"X ^ 



T"' 



T» 



T /" 



U pset bocKz f -Scarf 4 long. 



"I 



«. 




3*7" 






Up setting, Scarfing 
Welding. Smoothing 
with Flcttrer. 




Plate VII. 



34 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



Third — Form the scarf on each end. Place on the anvil 
with the straight or long side toward you. Rule for scarfing, 
length of scarf one and one-half times the thickness of 
the stock. 

Fourth — Heat one-third of the stock; cool the long corner 
and bend over the horn, repeat on the other end; heat 
the center and finish the bending. The work may be placed 
on top of the anvil in order to bend in the center rather 
than on the horn. Be sure that there is a true curve that 
the scarf may come together squarely. Pein the scarf 
down tightly before welding. 

Fifth — Weld and draw to measurements. Caution. Be 
sure that the fire is free from clinkers and that you have 
a narrow fire. Place the weld fiat over the center of the fire, 
cover well with coke and heat slowly. After drawing to size, 




Figure 23. Figure 24. 

smooth with flatter. Figures 23 and 24 show the flatter 
and the sledge. Great care must be exercised in striking 
with the sledge, not to use a heavy blow the first time. 
The first blow must always be light in order to gauge it. 
Sixth — Blacken finished work. 

Exercise XI — Plate VIII. Bending — Scarfing — 
Welding. "Links of Chain." 

First — Square ends of stock. 

Second — Bend the five pieces like I. The f" bottom swage 

will be very convenient for bending. (Figure 28, Page 37.) 



hook , Links , & Ring . 



3 " 

Stock 5 p'cs. 67 g 
I V ta I 




7" 

i 



(S~3D 



R 







m 



<t — O 



Bend like I rorm Scarf & bend 

like H. 



1" 1" 
Stock 94-X/6 



3£ 



H 



3S 




„ # *- Upsettog'dia.^l \* 
^^ oee drawin g 
for hdok. 



Plate VIII. 



36 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



Third — Scarf and bend, ready for welding like II. Figure 
25 shows the proper position for scarfing. 



w 




Figure 25. 

Fourth — Weld two links. Use a third link to weld the 
first and second together. In welding, place on the horn 
at 45° as shown in Figure 26. Smooth up to measurements, 
given in drawing. 




Figure 26. 

Exercise XII— Plate VIII. "Ring." 
First — Upset each end to iV diameter, shortening -|" on 
each end. 

Second — Form scarf, following the method of forming the 
scarf on round stock. 

Third — Bend, holding the straight side of the scarf toward 
the right hand, bending each end. 

Fourth — Weld. Use \" top swage (Figure 27) to smooth 
up the outside on the horn, striking swage with the hand 
hammer. 
Fifth — Weld to chain with one of the remaining links. 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



37 





Figure 27 



Figure 28. 



Exercise XIII— Plate IX. Fullering— Punching Hot 
Iron— Swaging— Drawing— Forming. "Chain Hook." 

First— Measure off If for the eye and mark on the wide 
side with center punch. 

Second — Use top and bottom fullers. (Figures 29, 30.) 
Figure 31 shows the operation. 

Third — Round up on the horn and finish in swage block 
(sometimes called a former). (Figure 7, Page 13.) 






Figure 29. 



Figure 30. 



Figure 31. 



38 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



-/- 



f 




-3- 



Figure 32. 

Fourth — Punch the hole in center of the eye, using black- 
smith punch. (1 — Figure 32.) {Note. After starting the punch, 
remove it to see if the hole is in the center of the eye. If not, 
change it; drive the punch about half way through; turn 
ivork over and repeat the process on the other side; place the 
work over the round hole in the anvil and drive out the burr. 



*. 






1 




'Z/Z 



Figure 33. 



Figure jj shows this operation.) Caution. Do not cool 
the punch too quickly when hot as it will make it very 
hard and liable to break when using. Drive the punch about 
\" through and rest the end of it on the anvil. Strike a 
blow upon the work to remove the punch. {Note. A little 
green coal placed in the hole when punching thick work, 
will prevent the punch from sticking.) 

Fifth — Round up the eye on horn as shown in Figure 34. 
Sixth — Draw out the body of the hook as shown in drawing, 
making it square first and then round, finishing in f" top 
and bottom swage. Figures 27 and 28, page 37. (Swages 
should not be used to draw out work to any extent — 
simply for smoothing and finishing.) 



Chain Hook. 



"vl'vS" 




Stock 5 x^ 
Use Fullers here. 



A. 



Centerpunchhere 



*^ Bottom. 



+ Round e y e on horn. 



Cut off 




$ Note- Use of 
. Fuller , Punch- 
inq hlot Iron, 
Pro win q, Swed q- 
inq ond Formin g. 



Plate IX. 



40 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 





Figure 34. 

Seventh — Cut off extra stock on hardie. 

Eighth — Form the lip on the end; drive \" down over the 

round edge of the anvil as shown in Figure 35. 




Figure 35. 

Ninth — Bend and flatten at the throat as shown in drawing. 
Tenth — Weld to the chain and blacken. 

Exercise XIV — Plate X. 

Twisting and Bending. " Timber Hanger." 

First — Lay off measurements given in drawing, working 

from the center of the stock; mark on the edge, holding in 

the vise while marking. 

Second — Heat at the last two marks and make a quarter 
twist ; place one end on the right hand side of the vise and 
twist from you ; place the other end on the left hand side of 
the vise and twist from you, thus making one twist right 
hand and one left hand. 

Third — Set over twists until two sides are straight as shown 
in drawing. If a sledge is held on the edge when setting 
over, it will prove advantageous. 

Fourth — Bend toward the straight sides at two center 
marks. To bend, cool all but about \" each side of the 



Timber hanger. 



5" 3" 

StocK 184 X l" X7e 



Quarter twist 



0" 



I ■ T > 



DC 



f 



1 



Quarter twist 



¥ 



Q 



Mark with center punch 



h//^H^/r-^//H 



? ) □ 






*/ 



H-2 h 




sz 



2)6 



uu 



6 



l<b 



A 



^—2 



4 

H-/->- 



<-2- 



76 






Y - 



Plate X. 



42 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



punch mark and bend over the horn. This 
must be done rapidly or the iron will be- 
come too cold. After bending at both 
marks, be sure the work is square and 
measurements correct. 
Fifth — Measure 5" from the outside for the 
next bend. Place in the vise and bend. 
Measure again 2" and make the last bend, 
making this bend also in the vise, and bend 
the second side in the same way. All bends 
should be toward the straight side. Cut off 
all extra stock with a hot chisel (Figure 36). 
Sixth — Examine work carefully, being sure 
that it is straight and measurements cor- 
rect. Blacken. 




Figure 36. 



Exercise XV— Plate XI. "Bolt." 
Upsetting — Bolt Making. 



First — Square the best end of the stock, making \" bevel 
on the edge. 

Second — From this end measure 4" for the shank of the bolt. 

Third — Upset as shown in drawing B. To upset, heat to a 
good yellow heat; cool at the 4" mark; place the squared 
end on the face of the anvil. (Figure 37 shows the proper 

n 



ZU 



^ 





Figure 37 



Figure 38 



Bolt 



U psetting Qnd Bolt Making 
Stock £'d/Q. 



6? 




> 



t/eod Flattened tn 
Head/ng tool 



3* 



^F 



// 




Convenient Formed Bolt Head. 



/^ Cut blank nut with 



hacK sow. 



m A/ut 



Wnti 




Z^ Upset end of stock 

Slipnuton and take 

welding heat 
3- Finish up in head mo tool 
/Vote c 

A sg- bar ma tf be used to -form. 

a coi la rand weld on some as 

blank nut. See"C" 




Plate XL 



44 FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 

position for upsetting.) Use great care in keeping the work 
straight while upsetting. Keep all stock below the 4" mark 
cool. 

Fourth — Form head in heading tool (Figure 38). The 
hexagon is formed on the face of the anvil. Be sure that 
the head is central. Use cupping tool (Figure 39) to chamfer 
the head. If the shank is rough, smooth in f" swages. 

Fifth — Examine work carefully, being sure that the 
measurements are correct. Blacken finished work. 




Figure 39. 

Exercise XVI— Plate XII. "Fork Wrench." 

First — Measure off 1J" from the best end of the stock. 

Second — Use \" top and bottom fullers as shown in Figure 
31, Exercise 13, Page 37. Fuller in only \" on each side. 

Third — Draw out the handle to the proper dimensions. 

Fourth — Round up the head on the horn of the anvil and 
finish in the former. Form the shoulders with the set 
hammer. (Figure 44, Page 50.) Smooth all over with the 
flatter. Do not use the flatter to draw out as it is only 
for smoothing finished work. 

Fifth — Cut off extra stock on the handle with the hot chisel 
and round the end. 

Sixth — Examine work carefully and blacken. 



Fork Wrench. 



Centerpunch here. 



-// 



Mch.Steel 




r rr 



7f 






7T 

_± 



^ 



il 



T 







76 



Finish all over in Machine Sho o. 



Plate XII. 



46 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



Exercise XVII— Plate XIII. 



Machinist's Clamp. 



First — Measure off 4" on a piece of J" square machine steel, 
20" long or any convenient length. 

Second — Measure off with center punch 1J" x2" X J". 

Third — Use \" fullers at each end of the 2" mark and draw 
center to proper dimensions and shape. 

Fourth — Round the screw end and cut off with hot chisel 
at the 4" mark. 




Figure 40. 



Fifth — Draw other end to proper dimensions and shape. 
(Note. If a tool is placed in the anvil when using the f" 
top fuller in forming the rib, as shown in Figure 40, it will 
be found to be advantageous.) 

Sixth — Bend ends to proper shape. Blacken finished work. 



Machinists Clamp 




y A 



7" 

k — 



JTV 



// 



,// 



\J" 



-T\ 






Stock 




A/ore- To be 
m a de or Ma- 
chine $ree/ 
and fin- 
ished in Ma- 
chine Shop. 



Plate XIII. 



48 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



Exercise XVIII— Plate XIV A and XIV B. 

Drawing— Forming — Scarfing — Welding and Riveting. 
"Blacksmith's Tongs." 

First — Upset two pieces to proper length and form scarf 
for the reins. 

Second — Form the first step on the jaw, measuring off If" 
of the J" square stock. Shoulder in on the round edge 
of the anvil as shown in Figure 41. 




Figure 41 



Figure 42, 



Figure 43 



Third — Form second step. Turn the work to the left and 
form shoulder even with the first, on the sharp edge of 
the anvil. Hold at about 60° as shown in Figure 42. 
Fourth — Form third step. Measure off If" from the first 
shoulder. Turn the work again to the left and form shoulder 
on the round edge of the anvil as shown in Figure 43. 
Always use care to keep all measurements as shown in 
drawings in working each step. 

Fifth — Form second jaw on the opposite end in the same 
manner as the first. Be sure that the first step is formed 
on the same side of the stock as the first jaw. 
Sixth — Draw the remaining stock between the last two 
steps to measurements given in drawing. 
Seventh — Cut off in the center with the hot chisel. In 
cutting off, do so at an angle of 45°, cutting on the f " side 
and then there will be very little difficulty in forming the 
scarf for the weld. Caution. Be sure that the piece is 
cut on the side as shown in drawing, as the weld made on the 



/" 



± Blacksmith Tongs- A 



Stock 



/-6X S Sq. 
2-/y'X±"Rd. 



A SfOCk 6'k gSq R^n 



3^ Step 

H 2-M 








6 
20* Step 



5vj 



3^ 



Cut for we/d here 



^ 



2 Pieces /^X/ekd. 



5 CS 



U pset to 9" before Scarfing 






3 V 



^vO 






S 



'6 



*/ 



^ . '3 



S 



^- 7 
^ 



Plate XIV A. 



50 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



wide side is much stronger than on the narrow side, the strain 
being downward and if made on the narrow side, it would 
have a tendency to open if it should be a weak weld. 

Eighth — Weld the two reins to the jaws and draw to meas- 
urements given in drawing. The set hammer may be used 
in starting the chamfered edge. Figure 44 shows set ham- 
mer ; the \" top and bottom swage to smooth the round ends ; 
the flatter to smooth the remaining part of the reins. The 
set hammer is also used in rounding up the eye as shown 
in Figure 45 . 

Ninth — Make groove in the jaws with a V tool. This allows 
the tongs to hold square and round stock as well as flat. 
Figure 46 shows V tool. 





Figure 44. 



Figure 45 



Figure 46. 



Tenth — Cut off one of the jaws with hot chisel to proper 
length. Punch the eyes with blacksmith punch; drive 
§" pin through the hole to make it the proper size. Fit the 
two jaws together and rivet. Use top and bottom cupping 
tools, Figures 47 and 48. {Note. Allow J" of the §" stock 
for the head, to rivet the tongs together.) When riveting, heat 
the rivet red hot and place in the tongs; set the head 
down with hand hammer and finish with cupping tool. 
This operation must progress rapidly or the rivet will 
become too cold. After riveting, the tongs will be found 
too tight to open. If placed in the fire and heated through 




Plate XIV B. 



52 FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 





Figure 47. Figure 48. 

the rivet at a cherry red, the rivet will expand lengthwise 
and the tongs may be opened with ease. 

Eleventh — Cut off remaining jaw even, using hot chisel. 
Fit the jaws to a piece of \" flat stock. 
Twelfth — Blacken finished work. 



STEEL AND ITS MANUFACTURE 

Steel is the name applied to carbonized iron, having a 
high tensile strength combined with elasticity. It was first 
made by the ancient Egyptians and other early races, by 
reducing very pure iron ore mixed with chopped wood, in 
clay crucibles, which were heated in charcoal fires blown 
by goat skin bellows. From this steel, the celebrated 
Indian sword blades were fashioned. No finer tool steel 
has ever been made. The term "steel" as used in early 
times, designated a form of carbonized iron which would 
harden or "temper" when dipped in cold water, after hav- 
ing been heated to a red heat. This definition no longer 
holds good, as the carbonized iron produced by modern 
methods and used extensively in structural work, goes by 
the name of steel. Up to the time of the invention of the 
open hearth process, the only commercial process of making 
steel was by decarbonizing cast iron, and then recarbonizing 
the resulting wrought iron in the cementation furnace. Steel 
may now be defined as a metal produced by a complete 
fusion of iron or iron alloys, in a bath, the necessary proper- 
ties being given after conversion by the addition of carbon 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 53 

or carbon alloys. Many theories have been advanced as to 
what steel really is. One held by many metallurgists is 
that "steel is an alloy of pure iron and carbon only," all 
other elements being regarded as impurities. Good steel 
is of a bluish, gray color, uniform in grain and having little 
lustre. 

There are three distinct methods used in making steel, 
the Open Hearth, the Bessemer and the Crucible. The latter 
is the oldest of the present methods of manufacture, having 
been in use for centuries. The first two methods are prob- 
ably the ones most commonly used at the present time. 
In these, the carbon in the cast iron is burned out, while 
in the last method, the carbon is burned into the wrought 
iron. Other methods formerly used, were Cement or Blister 
steel and Shear steel. In commercial importance, the 
processes rank, Open Hearth, Bessemer and Crucible. It 
was not until the Open Hearth and Bessemer processes 
came into use that steel began to supplant wrought iron 
to any extent. 

Open Hearth Steel. This method of making steel was 
discovered about the year 1845. It is under better 
control than the Bessemer process, since at any time it 
affords opportunity for testing and for making such addi- 
tions as may be necessary to yield the desired product. 
The open hearth furnace also permits of the highest tem- 
perature without requiring a strong draft. These furnaces 
are built to hold from ten to fifty tons of metal. The time 
for an operation or "heat" is from eight to eleven hours. 
Steel rails, structural materials, plates, etc., are produced 
by this process. 

Bessemer Steel. The Bessemer process is named after 
its inventor, Sir Henry Bessemer, an Englishman, and 
was introduced in 1856. For many years after its intro- 
duction it ranked first among all the processes. Besse- 
mer steel is made by decarbonizing cast iron by forcing a 
current of air through the molten metal in a pear-shaped 
crucible or vessel called a ' ' converter. ' ' There has been little 
change in the design of the converter from that originally 
used. A common size of this converter has the following 



54 FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 

dimensions: diameter, 8 ft., height, 15 ft. It is made of 
boiler plate, lined with refractory material. It is suspended 
upon an axis to admit of its being turned from an upright 
to a horizontal position. In the bottom, there are twelve 
tuyeres, which have to be replaced after about twelve to 
fifteen blows or heats. The usual capacity of the converter 
is from six to fifteen tons of cast-iron. The blast of air 
forced through the molten cast-iron, produces great heat. 
The resulting gas and flame escapes from the mouth of the 
converter, the combustion of carbon and silicon producing 
a temperature sufficient to keep the mass thoroughly melted, 
thus quickly burning out the carbon and silicon, this last 
result being indicated by the color of the flame. The molten 
metal is poured into a ladle and then there is added to it, 
manganiferous pig-iron, which reintroduces the necessary 
amount of carbon and manganese. This entire process 
takes about twenty minutes. It is then cast into ingots, 
and, after being treated in the reheating furnace or " soak- 
ing-pit" is rolled to the required thickness. Bessemer 
steel is used for nails, screws, wire, and in fact, for all 
products where cheapness rather than quality is the 
requirement. 

Crucible Steel. Crucible or tool steel, the oldest and 
simplest process, takes its name from the methods employed 
in its manufacture. In this process, carbon is added to a 
low phosphorus and sulphur wrought iron. Swedish or 
Norway iron is used in preference to other kinds, as it has 
proved superior in making high grade tool steel. This 
iron is cut into small pieces one inch long from flat 
iron. bars, 2"xi". These pieces are then placed in a clay 
crucible (sometimes a graphite crucible is used, although 
it is not as good) which is about twenty inches high and 
one foot in diameter. A certain amount of powdered char- 
coal is mixed with these pieces and the crucible is then 
tightly sealed, and subjected to great heat which melts 
the iron. After having remained in a molten state for some 
time, it is poured into molds and form-ingots which are 
afterward rolled or hammered under a steam hammer 
into bars. This process has undergone but little change in 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 55 



all the years it has been employed, the only important 
change being a more direct method for introducing the 
carbon into the steel. In the main, however, the method 
now used is the same as that used centuries ago. Owing 
to the high cost of production this method is now used 
principally for making high grade tool steel. The elasticity 
of this steel, makes it of use in many places where no other 
steel could be safely used. 

Tempering. The term "temper" as used by steel 
makers, refers to the percentage of carbon in the steel. 
It has a different meaning when used by the steel maker 
than when used by the hardener. In the steel mill, it 
means the amount of carbon the steel contains. According 
to "Metcalf" the meanings may be tabulated as follows: 
Very high temper 150 carbon 

High temper 100 to 120 carbon 

Medium temper 70 to 80 carbon 

Mild temper 40 to 60 carbon 

Low temper 20 to 30 carbon 

Soft or dead soft temper 20 carbon 

A point is T( jo of 1 % of any element that enters into 
the composition of steel, so: a 150 point carbon steel, 
contains \\% carbon. In the steel mill such a steel is 
spoken of as 150 steel. "Tempering' on the other hand, 
denotes the process by which steel is brought to a previ- 
ously determined degree of hardness. A steel chisel can 
be made so hard that it will cut another piece of steel; 
or so soft that driving it into a piece of hard wood will dull 
its point. This property of steel enables the mechanic to 
make it into tools suitable for any kind of work. Steel 
is tempered by various means, all of which depend upon a 
heating and subsequent cooling of the metal. For instance, 
a piece of tool steel which is heated to a cherry red heat 
and then plunged into cold water, becomes very hard. 
If allowed to cool slowly, it becomes soft. Between these 
extremes, all degrees of hardness can be obtained. Every 
tool is tempered to the hardness that makes it most useful. 
When a polished piece of steel, hardened or unhardened, 
is exposed to heat in the presence of air, it assumes different 



56 FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 

colors as the heat increases. First will be noted a faint straw 
color, which changes to a deeper straw, then to a dark 
brown with purple spots, then to a dark blue, and finally 
to a light blue. These colors are due to a thin film of oxide 
that forms as the heat progresses. These colors are value- 
less, however, to the tool maker unless the metal has first 
been cooled in a bath of water, oil, or some other liquid, 
when at a red heat. Drawing hardened steel to any of these 
colors is called "tempering." The following list of colors 
applies to all of the tools we are likely to make. 
Color Tool 

Pale or light straw Lathe tools. 

Dark straw Taps, dies, milling cutters, etc. 

Wood working tools (cooled in oil) . 

Purple Center punch, stone drills 

Dark blue Cold or cape chisels 

Light blue Screw drivers 

Tool Tempering. Let us consider the tempering of 
a tool, taking for example, the cold chisel, a tool widely 
known and generally abused. To obtain a good chisel, it 
must be properly forged at a comparatively low heat, and 
then hammered with light blows at the last until it has 
cooled considerably below the heat ordinarily used when 
metal is displaced. The object of the light blow on the 
cooling metal, is to close the grain or refine the steel, making 
it tough. Tools of this character stand up better if they 
are heated to a cherry red heat and allowed to cool before 
hardening. This is not always possible, but when it is, 
make the hardening heat a separate operation. To harden, 
heat two-thirds of the part forged to a cherry red heat, 
using great care not to overheat the point, and then cool 
one -half of the blade in cold water; always move the tool 
about or set the water in motion, avoiding any danger of 
making a water crack at the water edge. The next opera- 
tion is to brighten one broad surface with an emery stick. 
A piece of emery cloth tacked over a stick of wood makes 
a very good polisher. The heat remaining in the body of 
the chisel will reheat the end already cooled, and the 
various colors will appear in order on the polished surface. 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 57 



The proper color for a cold chisel when correctly tempered, 
is dark blue. When this color is attained at the point, 
the entire tool is then immersed in water and is not removed 
until cold. If the tool is not cooled off enough in the first 
operation, the colors will run down very rapidly and become 
compact, and if not watched closely, they will be gone before 
the tool can be cooled. When a tool is to be hardened all 
over, it is first heated to a cherry red heat and then cooled. 
After brightening with the emery stick, place on a square 
or flat piece of hot iron. The tool will absorb the heat and 
the colors will soon commence to run. When the desired 
color is attained cool again in water or oil. In a commercial 
plant where a great many tools of the same kind are made, 
and where the composition of the steel is known, a hardening 
bath is used. 

Spring Tempering. The method employed in hard- 
ening a spring in oil is as follows : First— Heat to a cherry 
red heat, as in hardening in water; cool all over in oil; 
hold over the fire until the oil upon the surface blazes. 
This is called ' ' -flashing. ' ' Cool again in oil. This ' ' flashing ' ' 
is done three times before the process is complete. Another 
method of hardening a spring employs a water bath instead 
of the oil. Pass the spring over the fire or through a flame 
until it is hot enough to make a pine stick show sparks; 
then cool in water and a spring "temper" results. 

Annealing. The process of softening a piece of steel is 
called ' 'annealing. ' ' A piece of steel is softened or ' 'annealed' ' 
prior to being worked upon in the lathe or otherwise 
machined, as this process brings about a uniform softening, 
relieving any strain that might have occurred in forging. To 
anneal a piece of steel it should first be heated to a cherry 
red heat, and then allowed to cool slowly. When long pieces 
of steel, or a number of pieces, are to be annealed, and a 
furnace is employed, the pieces are placed in a long tube or 
pipe, and both ends sealed. They are then brought to a 
cherry red heat and allowed to cool. When a piece is heated 
in the forge, it is covered over in the annealing box. Dry 
slack lime or ashes can be used for this purpose, the object 
being to keep the steel away from the air. 



58 FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



HIGH SPEED TOOL STEEL. High speed tool steel, 
known also as self -hardening steel, was first invented by 
Robert Mushet and was known as Mushet self-hardening 
steel. Since then many other varieties such as Novo, Blue 
Chip, Sa BeN, Peerless and Scott have been invented and 
new steels are being introduced constantly. The Blue Chip, 
for instance, derives its name from the color of the chips 
cut off at such speed and of such a size as to turn them 
blue. High speed tool steels have special alloys of iron 
which make them very hard when cooled off in oil or by 
a blast of air at a white sweating or welding heat, thus 
receiving the name of air hardening and self-hardening 
steels. There is a very small quantity of carbon in these 
alloy steels, principally tungsten, chromium, molybdenum 
and manganese; sometimes two or more are used, some- 
times only a single one. These steels are of such recent 
invention and there are so many kinds that it is best to 
follow the- instructions for manipulation given by manu- 
facturers. 

The Fire. Gas and coke furnaces are the most desir- 
able for heating high speed steels and are especially so for 
hardening. When the gas and coke furnaces are not avail- 
able, the forge may be used, using great care about the 
fire and keeping the tuyeres well covered with coke. A 
hard foundry coke makes a good fire. 

Forging. High speed steels may be forged at a good 
forging heat, a light red, sometimes called a ''Lemon Heat." 
It is best to heat the tools slowly and evenly. Do not work 
the tools after a cherry red or dark red heat is attained. 
If forged below this heat, they are liable to crack. It is 
well to heat often when forging tools. Some steels have 
been condemned owing to the fact that they have not been 
forged at a proper heat. 

Hardening. To harden, heat to a white sweating 
or welding heat and cool as quickly as possible in oil or in a 
blast of cold air, or in the open air. Use great care when 
heating lathe tools, to confine the heat as near to the point 
as possible; if heated in the forge, do not allow the point 
to hit the sides of the fire. The degree of hardness and heats 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 59 

depends upon the size and shape and upon what the tool 
is to be used for. The "Barium Chloride" process for 
finished tools is very successful. The larger tools are first 
heated to a red heat and then kept in the bath at a tem- 
perature of 2100° Fahr. until they reach the same tempera- 
ture. Smaller tools are immediately placed in the bath. 
When the tools have attained the desired heat, they are 
dipped in oil. After hardening, the Barium Chloride may 
be cleaned off, leaving the work with the same color it had 
before being treated. 

Annealing. This process is the same as that used 
for carbon steels. Heat slowly in a furnace or open fire to 
a cherry red heat and then bury in the annealing box and 
allow it to remain there until cold or sometimes the work 
is placed in the forge fire and after reaching the annealing 
heat, is covered over in the fire and allowed to cool as the 
fire goes out. To cut off, do not heat hardened stock. When 
cold, nick on the emery wheel and break. When cutting 
hot steel, do not allow it to get too cold as the center will 
pull out, thus leaving a bad end. 

CASE HARDENING. Case hardening is a process of 
hardening or carbonizing the surface of wrought iron or 
machine steel, thus enabling the manufacturer to use a 
cheaper grade of steel for certain parts of machines where 
it may be made to answer the purpose. There are various 
methods of case hardening, of which one of the commonest 
is known as the "box method." In this, the parts to be 
hardened are packed in a cast-iron box with ground bone 
and burnt leather; then placed in a furnace and heated. 
The depth of the hardening depends upon the length of 
time that the pieces are kept hot. Sometimes they are 
kept hot for as long as eight hours. When the box is removed 
from the fire, the contents are dumped into a tank of running 
water. Another and very excellent method consists in heat- 
ing the steel in the forge to a red heat, covering it with pulver- 
ized yellow prussiate of potash, heating it again to a red heat, 
and then cooling in brine. Cyanide of potassium can be used 
in place of the prussiate of potash, but should be handled 
with great care, as the fumes are extremely dangerous. 



60 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



Exercise XIX— Plate XV. 

Drawing — Tempering Cast-steel. ''Center Punch." 

(Use steel of 85 point carbon.) 



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First — Make head as shown. 

Second — Measure off for point, draw to required 
length, drawing square first. Care must be 
observed not to heat to more than a good cherry 
red heat, also not to strike too hard a blow upon 
the extreme point when it is black hot as it 
will split. 

Third — Put on the work number while it is 
black hot. 

Fourth — Harden in water. In order to harden, 
heat the point to a cherry red heat, cool two- 
thirds by moving it about in water (see Figure 
49). Brighten one side of the point with emery 
stick and when the point is purple, cool in water. 
Wipe work with cotton waste before cooling 
entirely, for if placed over the fire to blacken, it 
Figure 49. would be liable to destroy the temper. 

Exercise XX — Plate XV. "Blacksmith Punch." 
First — Make head and point as in previous exercise. Harden 
in water. Temper to a light blue. 

Exercise XXI — Plate XV. "Cold Chisel." 

First — Make head as in previous exercise. 
Second — Measure 2\" from the head and draw out the 
remaining stock for the blade. Flatten square with one 
of the sides. Use care not to strike the edge of the chisel 
when below a cherry red heat. If it is heated to a 
cherry red heat just before finishing, and worked on the 
wide side of the blade with a quick, light blow until black 
hot, it will pack the steel and make a much stronger tool. 
Cut off square on hardie. Harden in water at a cherry red 
heat and temper to a dark blue. 

Caution. Use great care not to overheat, especially 
after packing. The cold chisel is one of the hardest tools to 
temper properly and it is the most abused tool in use. 
Third — Blacken before cooling entirely. 



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Plate XV. 



62 FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 

Exercise XXII— Plate XV. "Cape Chisel." 

First — Make head as in previous exercises. 
Second — Measure off 3 J" from the end including the head 
and fuller in on this mark with \" top and bottom fullers 
to tV. Keep square with one of the sides. Draw out the 
remaining stock as when making a cold chisel, keeping the 
stock tV or more thick. Then hold the chisel on the outside 
edge of the anvil, with the narrow side up and draw to the 
proper shape and dimensions as given in drawing. 
Third— Cut end off on hardie. In beveling back from the 
blade to the body of the chisel, it will prove advantageous 
to hold the chisel with \" tongs by the blade. Harden in 
water and temper to a dark blue. 

Exercise XXIII— Plate XVI. 
Lathe Tool No. 1. "Bent Round Nose Tool." 
{Use steel of 120 point carbon.) 

First — Square one end and bevel the four sides \" . 
Second — Forge the other end to required dimensions. Let 
the bevel be formed entirely by the anvil as shown in 
Figure 50. The top of the tool should be a trifle thicker 




Figure 50. 

than the bottom. This gives the proper clearance. The 
point is bent upward to give the proper rake. 
Third — After the tool is forged, cut off the end on the hardie 
striking on the top of the tool. 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



63 



Fourth — Bend the tool to about 45°. Harden the point in 
water and temper to a light straw color. In hardening, 
cool nearly all of the forged part of the tool as shown in 
Figure 5 1 . Leave plenty of heat in the body of the tool to 
draw to proper temper, a light straw. 




Figure 51. 

Exercise XXIV— Plate XVI. 
Lathe Tool No. 2. "Thread Tool." 
First — Square end as in previous exercise. 
Second — Draw chisel point If" long. Place upon the anvil 
and forge the point down over the round edge of the anvil 
as shown in Figure 52. The end being forged above the 
body of the tool gives it longer life. 




Figure 52. 

Cut off the end with the hot chisel on the sharp 
Examine work carefully and see if 
measurements are correct. 

Fourth — Harden in the same manner as nosing tool. Temper 
to a light straw. 



Third- 
edge of the anvil. 



64 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



Exercise XXV— Plate XVI. 
Lathe Tool No. 3. "Bent Side Tool." 

First — Square one end as in previous exercises. 

Second — In forming this tool, bevel the end as shown in 

Figures 53 and 54. 




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Figure 53. 



Figure 54. 



Third — Place on the anvil so that the edge a comes even 
with the square edge of the anvil, with the straight side 
b, c, at the right hand as shown in Figure 55. While 
in position, it is set down, the blows being delivered in the 
direction shown by arrows in Figure 56. When properly 
forged, the edge 6, c, is made thinner than a as shown in 
section a-b. 




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Figure 56. 



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Plate XVI. 



66 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 





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Figure 58. 



Fourth — After the blade is properly forged to dimensions, 
the top edge, Plate XVI, is set over to one side as shown 
in Figure 5 7 , using the set hammer. This gives the tool the 
proper clearance. 

Fifth — Bend the tool to about 45°. 

Sixth — Harden and temper to a light straw. Figure 58 
shows the correct position for dipping the tool when hard- 
ening. Move the tool about in the water when hardening. 
Wipe work with oily waste after tempering. 



Exercise XXVI— Plate XVI. 
Lathe Tool No. 4. ''Cutting Off Tool." 

First — Square one end as in previous exercises. 
Second — Measure off \" and shoulder in on the sharp edge 
of the anvil. Draw to proper shape, cutting end off with 
chisel on the sharp edge of the anvil. Set the bottom of 
the tool over as shown in drawing, also throw up the point 
for proper rake and clearance. 

Third — Harden and temper to a light straw. 

Fourth — Wipe work with oily waste after, tampering. 



FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



67 



Exercise XXVII— Plate XVII. 

Drawing — Punching — Polishing — Tempering Tool 
Steel. "Flat Pene or Riveting Hammer." 

First — Measure off 3 J" on a piece of J" square tool steel. 
Lay off with center punch \\ n from the end for the center 
of the eye. 

Second — Punch the eye with the eye-punch, Figure 59. The 
eye pin, Figure 60, is used to shape the eye properly after 




Figure 59. 



Figure 60. 



punching. (Note. Keep the punch cold while punching and 
do not strike too heavy a blow as it is liable to bend the punch.) 
Use a light, quick blow. Remove the punch after the first 
blow to see if it is started in the proper place, as then is 
the time to change it. (Note. A little green coal placed in 
the hole while punching will prevent sticking.) Caution. Use 
great care in heating, especially after the eye is punched, as it 
will burn very quickly. 



68 FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 

Third — Draw out the pene to proper shape and dimensions. 
When drawing down the pene, hold the work upon the anvil 
in order to look into the eye. This is a precaution against 
forming it upon the wrong side. Square the end by cutting 
off with hot chisel. 

Fourth — Cut off at the 3j" mark with the hot chisel and 

draw the face to proper dimensions. Smooth all over at a 

cherry red heat with the flatter. Trim the face with hot 

chisel. 

Fifth — Heat to a cherry red heat and bury in the annealing 

box until cold (for annealing). 

Sixth — Grind on the emery wheel and polish with emery 

cloth. File the eye if it is not true. 

Seventh — Harden. (Note. If covered over with hard soap, 

it will polish easier after hardening.) Heat to a cherry red 

heat and cool off the face, then the pene, leaving the center 

hot (move about when cooling). Draw the face to a purple 

color and pene to a dark blue color. 

Eighth — Repolish with emery cloth. Buff on a buffing 

wheel if convenient. 



Riveting Hammer. 



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Plate XVII. 



Notes. 



Notes. 



Notes. 



OCT 19 1910 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 



OCT 19 1910 



